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Established in 1996 in response to substantial anthropogenic pressure, Barsey Rhododendron
Sanctuary (Barsey) in Sikkim, India, serves as a model for biodiversity conservation. Spanning 104 km² in area and elevations ranging from 2,200 to 4,100 m asl, Barsey protects a high diversity of Rhododendron, oaks and bamboos, as well as critical habitats for endangered fauna. Following the exclusion of grazing and the implementation of active community engagement through Eco-Development Committees, the sanctuary has demonstrated forest regeneration, increased carbon stocks, restored springs and a rise in ecotourism during Rhododendron flowering seasons. Here, we review the historical transformation of Barsey from a highly disturbed forest landscape to a recovering protected area, highlighting ecological outcomes, biodiversity gains and the role of local communities in conservation. We outline future research and conservation priorities, and ways to regulate tourism pressure, support off-season livelihoods and habitat restoration, and promote sustainable Rhododendron cultivation. Furthermore, we highlight the need to strengthen long-term ecological research and climate monitoring through community-led conservation initiatives.
Located within the Eastern Himalayan biodiversity hotspot (87 °E – 95 °E longitude) and representing 0.2% of the country’s land area, Sikkim is India’s second-smallest state and a recognised hotspot of high biodiversity (Singh &Sanjappa, 2011; Chettri et al., 2018). As part of the Eastern Himalaya, Sikkim exhibits heterogeneous environmental conditions across its elevational zones, resulting from long-term surface uplift, climatic fluctuations and erosion (Rawat &Tambe, 2012; Bhutia et al., 2019; Manish et al., 2022; Pandit et al., 2025). The region exhibits a remarkable elevation gradient, ranging from 300 to over 5,000 m asl, and the landscape includes the world’s third-highest mountain, Khangchendzonga, at 8,586 m asl (Tambe
et al., 2011) (Figs 1a & 2b). Recent reports indicate that Sikkim harbours approximately 5,000 species of flowering plants, 144 species of mammals, 568 species of birds and 5,892 species of insects within 7,096 km² of its land area (Gogoiet al., 2021;Sikenvis, 2021). However, much of the biodiversity in Sikkim and the Himalaya remains largely undiscovered, making this region one of the world’s biodiversity dark spots (Ondo et al., 2024).
Recently, biodiversity in Sikkim has been under intense anthropogenic pressure (Banerjee et al., 2019), and balancing development with environmental protection remains a major challenge. Over the past two decades, the state has actively implemented conservation and environmental policies. For example, in 2006, the Sikkim Biodiversity Board was established and it has played an essential role in raising awareness of biodiversity conservation. Sikkim is also the first Indian state to ban disposable polystyrenefoodware, plastic bags and firecrackers. In 2016, it became the world’s first organic state, conducting all agricultural activities without chemical pesticides or fertilisers. To support long-term biodiversity conservation, the Government of India and the state government have established eight protected areas, including sanctuaries and national parks, which currently encompass almost 47% of Sikkim’s total area (Banerjee et al., 2019). Barsey Rhododendron Sanctuary (hereafter Barsey) in the south-west of Sikkim was thus established to conserve the region’s Rhododendron (Ericaceae) species, along with its endemic fauna and flora.
In this article we review the history of Barsey and highlight its transformation from a disturbed landscape into a thriving sanctuary. We highlight improvements in local biodiversity following its establishment as a sanctuary and examine the local community’s relationship with the forest. Given the increase in tourism pressure, we conclude by providing recommendations, following the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (CBD, 2022), to improve the management of Barsey.
The documentation of Himalayan rhododendrons started when the British botanist Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker visited Nepal and the Eastern Indian Himalaya between 1848 and 1851 for botanical exploration (Hooker, 1891). In his monograph Rhododendrons of Sikkim Himalaya, Hooker provided a detailed account of 43 species from the Indian Himalaya of which he described 31 new species (Hooker, 1849, 1851, 1855). A century later, Pradhan
(1985, 1986) and Pradhan &Lachungpa (1990) conducted a notable Rhododendron expedition and compiled a comprehensive catalogue of Sikkim rhododendrons. Later, the Botanical Survey of India (Mao et al., 2017; Gogoiet al., 2022) and the Government of Sikkim, India, began implementing measures to conserve the region’s rich Rhododendron biodiversity. To date, 46 Rhododendron taxa have been reported from Sikkim by Basnett & Ganesan (2022), while Gogoiet al. (2022) documented 45 taxa from the state. Of these, 24 Rhododendron species have been recorded from Barsey (Kushwaha et al., 2005; Sharma et al., 2025). The Barsey Rhododendron Sanctuary was declared a Protected Area on
8 June 1996, under the Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972 (Act no. 53 of 1972; Notification number: 50/WL/F/95/269/F & WL), for the conservation of its Rhododendron forests and high-altitude Himalayan ecosystems threatened by unchecked exploitation and habitat degradation (Government of Sikkim, 2018–2028). Barsey is located in the Soreng district of Sikkim and spans approximately 104 km². The sanctuary also serves as a corridor connecting the Khangchendzonga Biodiversity Reserve to the north and the Singalila National Park in West Bengal to the south. Towards the west, it is bounded by the Singalila Ridge, which forms the natural international border with Nepal. The wide altitudinal variation, ranging from 2,000 to 4,100 m asl, supports a range of vegetation types, from subtropical moist deciduous forests and wet temperate forests to subalpine and alpine forests at higher elevations (Champion & Seth, 1968; Sharma, 2001; Banerjee et al., 2019; Key Biodiversity Areas, 2024).
The sanctuary receives an average rainfall of 200–350 cm, and humidity during the wet season ranges from 60% to 95% (Maityet al., 2006). The sanctuary thereby serves as a watershed for the surrounding villages and a major source for tributaries of the river Rangit in West Sikkim (Tambeet al., 2005). It is surrounded by almost 30 villages, and it has several entry points. Hilley, in West Sikkim, is one of the most frequently visited villages by tourists. The bridle trail leading from Hilley to Barsey is particularly favoured, especially during the Rhododendron blooming season running from February to May (Figs 1c & 2a, g).
Before the establishment of Barsey, there was no restriction on the use of forest resources (Bhagwat et al., 2012). The forests of Barsey are reported to have experienced extensive exploitation as a result; forest areas were subjected to rampant tree felling for firewood, and lopping for fodder and timber (Tambeet al., 2005; Government of Sikkim, 2018–2028). Unmanaged livestock grazing was yet another disturbance, one of the most critical factors contributing to forest depletion (Tambeet al., 2005). Cattle sheds were built within the forests, and the surrounding vegetation was cleared to create open space for livestock grazing. Over time, the area around the cattle sheds became completely barren due to trampling and overgrazing. Very few healthy trees were found within the 1 ha area surrounding each cattle shed (Tambeet al., 2005). There were 288 herders, each of whom had, on average, two cattle sheds within the sanctuary, and so a total of 576 ha of land was left barren (Tambeet al., 2005). These activities led to the proliferation of thorny shrubs of Berberis sp. (Berberidaceae), Rosa sp.(Rosaceae) and Viburnum sp. (Adoxaceae) in overgrazed areas (Tambeet al., 2005).
Other exploitative activities included the extraction of medicinal herbs, and poaching Lophuraleucomelanos (Kalij pheasant) and other wild animals (Government of Sikkim, 2018–2028). At higher elevations (> 3,000 m), slow-growing rhododendrons and Abies densa(silver fir) were the only source of energy for fuelwood (Bhagwat et al., 2012). Forest fires, particularly those in 1973 and 2005, further degraded both broadleaf and conifer habitats. During this period, scientific documentation of biodiversity loss remained limited, with only anecdotal reports indicating declines in wildlife and forest health. Permanent drinking water sources dried out due to deforestation by herders and their cattle, and this was one of the pressing issues raised by the villagers when Barsey had no restrictions in place (Tambeet al., 2005).
